Exercises, examples and other material relating to training module Y105. This topic is presented on public courses Learning to program in Python, Python Programming

In Python, blocks of code can be named. Such named blocks of code can be run from elsewhere in your program, and are known as functions. A module is a text file that contains a number of functions and other items, and a package is a group of related modules.

Python Calling functions and methods. Using objects and modules.

Articles and tips on this subject		updated
4724	From and Import in Python - where is the module loaded from? Python's from and import statements both require you to give the name of the source from where you'll be loading extra code. And for a module held in a single file, thats's a file name but without extension. So if I say import fourth, Python will look for a file called fourth.py. Where it looks is ...	2016-11-06
4722	Embedding more complex code into a named block If you're writing a complicated piece of code / awkward algorithm, it's a good idea to put it into a separate function. That way, it can be debugged and tested on its own, it can re-used in other code later on, and it can be hidden away from other users - and indeed from you (the author) unless you ...	2016-11-04
4719	Nesting decorators Python's decorators allow you to wrap a function within another. You might want to do this to report on or log some of your functions, to set timers, or to add other behaviousr to a whole group of functions. Decorators also allow you to modify the calling sequence to your methods (but be careful!); ...	2016-11-02
4662	Recursion in Python - the classic example A function is know as 'recursive' if it calls itself ... inherently a very dangerous thing to do, as it makes code harder to follow and debug, and you need to be 100% sure you have an "escape clause". So I normally resist giving examples on a course. However, at the tail end of last week I did put ...	2016-03-08
4645	What are callbacks? Why use them? An example in Python A callback is a function that's called from within another, having initially been "registered" for use at an outer level earlier on. Yeah, right - what does that mean or do? An example ... if I'm setting up a GUI (Graphic User Interface), as I define my various sliders and buttons, I want to say "when ...	2016-02-12
4448	What is the difference between a function and a method? I strongly encourage delagates on our courses to divide their code into managable, understandable, testable, re-usable chunks rather than write it all into a single block. And the adjectives I've used (managable, understandable, testable, re-usable) explain why. You can process data within these chunks ...	2015-03-05
4441	Reading command line parameters in Python The sys module in Python gives you access to operating system parameters such as the command line interface, via an ordered collection (I think a list, may be a tuple) called argv. Although many / most users these days don't use the command line directly, it's often used internally between programs in ...	2015-02-24
4410	A good example of recursion - a real use in Python Recursion is where a named block of code calls itself. The "classic" demonstration is the code to generate a factorial number:   def factorial(n):     if n ...	2015-02-04
4407	Python - even named code blocks are objects In Python, "everything is as object" and objects / variables share the same data storage area and naming convention if they're "classic" variables containing data values used in your program, or if they're names pieces of code (functions or methods). That sharing gives a great power in facilities to ...	2015-01-29
4361	Multiple yields and no loops in a Python generator? Python generator functions return their results in parts and don't have a return statement but rather a yield statement whenever a results is ready to be returned - typically, the production of a list that's returned all at once is replaced by the production (in a loop) of a series of values, each of ...	2014-12-22
4212	Python functions - an introduction to how they work When I'm writing code, I'll sometimes come to a complicated algorithm and wonder just to to tackle it. I know my inputs and outputs well, but how I calculate it requires considerable thought. Take, for example, a postal delivery service in a traditional English street where the practical thing is to ...	2013-11-19
4161	Python varables - checking existance, and call by name or by value? A couple of good questions from a recent delegate... Q. How do I check for the existance of a variable in Python? A. Reference it and see if an exception is thrown. Here's an example in which I create a variable only if my program is run with command line parameters:   import sys   if ...	2013-08-31
4029	Exception, Lambda, Generator, Slice, Dict - examples in one Python program A new example from last week's Python course, showing exception, lambda, generator and list slices in a practical programming example. The task we took was to go through a file of railway stations and ticket sales figures, and report on the most and least used 20 in the UK. The programs's [here]. a) ...	2013-03-04
3945	vargs in Python - how to call a method with unknown number of parameters In C, a few functions such as printf can take a variable number of arguments, and it's possible (but not common) for you to write functions like that too. In Python, though, it's much more common. In declaring a function, you can specify:   a) Mandatory parameters, just with a name   b) ...	2012-12-08
3931	Optional positional and named parameters in Python Functions are commonly called with a set number of positional parameters. However, you have more flexibility in Python. If you define your function with a parameter starting with a "*", then all remaining parameters after anything to its left are stored in that parameter as a tuple. And if you conclude ...	2012-11-24
3885	Default local - a good choice by the author of Python Although it would be convenient at times to be able to refer to any variable anywhere in your program, this is not how most languages work by default. And they're designed that way! That's to avoid confusion as a program grows, when there's a strong possibility of several programmers on the same ...	2012-10-13
3852	Static variables in Python? Each time you call a function, you start off with a fresh set of variables. That's usually exactly what you want, as you don't usually want one calculation to be influenced by the debris of the previous similar calculation. In Python, you can define a variable as an attribute of the method (using methodname-dot ...	2012-09-01
3766	Python timing - when to use a list, and when to use a generator If you're going to cook dinner for the family, it's much more efficient to cook everyone's meal together. If you're a family of four, you won't want to cook four separate pans of carrots, but rather you'll want to cook them all together. But now imagine you're holding a carrot street party, and providing ...	2012-06-16 (longer)
3695	Functions are first class variables in Lua and Python I've been training in Lua and Python this week - and the two languages are very diferent, but in many ways they're also much the same. Both languages are slim (ie not bloated with facilities). For example neither supports the ++ operator which those of us who do a lot of coding in Perl, PHP, C and C++ ...	2012-04-14
3662	Finding all the unique lines in a file, using Python or Perl A question - how do I process all the unique lines from a file in Python? Asked by a delegate today, solved neatly and easily using a generator which means that there's no need to store all the data - unique values can be passed back and processed onwards as they're found. This is fantastic news if ...	2012-03-24
3474	Python Packages - groupings of modules. An introduction As your Python code grows in volume, you'll want to arrange it into subdirectories, with a mirroring mechanism within the language to let you have the extra heirarcy as you load the code from the subdirectory. And you're looking at python packages. They work as follows: a) You put the modules that ...	2011-10-11
3472	Static variables in functions - and better ways using objects Usually, I don't want leftovers from a previous call to a function to hang around when I call the same function again later in my program. After all, the cosine of 45 degrees is not dependent on what the previous cosine request I made was! However, there are some occasions where I may want to have ...	2011-10-11
3464	Passing optional and named parameters to python methods When you call a named block of code (a method or function), you'll wish to pass in originating values that are changed from one call / use to the next - these are commonly known as the parameters. If I'm calling a function to calculate the area of a rectangle, for example, I would pass in the width ...	2011-10-04
3459	Catching the fishes first? If you make a fish pie for your friends, you'll catch all the fish you need before you start the preparation and cooking work, and you'll do the cooking all at once. If you run a fish pie factory, you'll have a steady flow of fish arriving while your production line is running. Receiving ...	2011-09-28
3280	Passing parameters to Python functions - the options you have Parameters to Python functions / methods are (by default) position dependent. If you def a function with 2 parameters, and call it with two, the first incoming address is taken as being the incoming address saved accessed through the first variable, and the second incoming address is taken as being ...	2011-05-07
3159	Returning multiple values from a function call in various languages - a comparison I've always thought it a bit odd that you call a function with any number of parameters, and yet it returns a single value; in Java, C or C++ you declare a return type (void if there is not to be anything returned) and you are then constrained by that specification. There are, of course, other ways ...	2011-02-10
2998	Using an exception to initialise a static variable in a Python function / method Exceptions are sometimes "sold" as a way of trapping errors - but they're more than that - they're an excellent way of trapping conditions where there isn't a valid result. "How many people live in this house" you may ask of a function / method call, and the answer may come back as "2" or "5" ... or ...	2010-10-20
2994	Python - some common questions answered in code examples Some tips and new examples from last week ... Python in Plymouth! • How do I put comments in a Python regular expression to make it more readable: [source] • How do I use a python dictionary as a table of counters - in our example, counting the number of people in our team who have each of ...	2010-10-10
2929	Passing a variable number of parameters in to a function / method How many columns are there in each row in a table? It will vary, depending on the table! If I want to write a "row" function in PHP, passing in as parameters each of my columns, I don't know the parameter count. But I can find out using the fun_num_args function, and I can then get each of them using ...	2010-08-20
2878	Program for reliability and efficiency - do not duplicate, but rather share and re-use When you're writing a new piece of code - especially if you're also quite new to programming - you'll be concentrating so much on getting it to work that you may not be giving too much thought to making it easy look after your code later on (maintainance), nor to sharing a piece of code between programs. ...	2010-07-30
912	Recursion in Python I'm not a great advocate of recursion - pieces of code that call themselves; most of the examples that I see in books are "training examples" that are over complex and achieve results that could much more easily be achieved by alternative means. I'm not telling you NEVER to use recursion - sometimes ...	2010-06-19
2766	Optional and named parameters to Python functions/methods Do you want to call a function with a differing number of arguments - sometimes simply looking for a function to run with all defaults, and at other times passing in some specific values / variables? Do you have so many different possible parameters that you would like to be able to "I want to give ...	2010-05-15
959	It's the 1st, not the 1nd 1rd or 1th. Here's a function in Python that takes the day number in the month (in the range 1 to 31 ...) and returns "st","nd","rd" or "th" as appropriate def somehow(val):   "Somehow, your time will come"   ding = (["st","nd","rd"]+["th"]*7)[(val-1) % 10]   if val/10 == 1: ding = ...	2010-04-14
2718	Python - access to variables in the outer scope In Python, variables are local to the block in which they're used unless declares in some other way. And that's good news, because the last thing you want in a substantial script is for data to "leak" between functions as can happen in default-accepting Perl or Lua. But there is an exception ... if ...	2010-04-13
2520	Global and Enable - two misused words! The word global is used in declaring variables in some languages such as Tcl and Python to indicate that the variable being referred to is shared with the variable of the same name at the top scope. To use the word global, which implies that the declaration makes the variable visible everywhere, is misleading The ...	2009-12-09
2506	Good example of recursion in Python - analyse an RSS feed I'm not keen on recursive code - code that calls itself. Very often, such code is elegant in a way, yet so 'clever' that it is hard to follow. There are, however, exceptions where I say "THAT is a good use of recursion". Once such is in the handling / parsing of RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds. I ...	2009-11-20
2481	Sample code with errors in it on our web site Feedback is lifeblood ... ignore it at your peril, and remember that for each person who lets you know you have a problem, a further ten will have noticed and not said anything. From my mailbox: > Your webpage > > http://www.wellho.net/resources/ex.php4?item=y105/locvar.py > > contains the following ...	2009-10-30
2440	Optional parameters to Python functions Python functions (and methods) can be called with any number (0 or more) parameters, but the calling sequence must match the 'template' or 'function prototype' given when defining the function. Let's define a function: def fred(a,b,c=3,d=4,e=5,f=6):     print a,b,c,d,e,f That ...	2009-10-08
2439	Multiple returns from a function in Python Convention states that you can call a function with many parameters, but you return just one. There's some truth in that statement, but of course you can often return a collection - an array, list, hash, dictionary or other composite object. Here's a Python example ... 3 parameters in and 2 return ...	2009-10-06
2011	Conversion of OSI grid references to Eastings and Northings In both Ireland and the UK, the Ordnance survey divides down the country into a series of lettered 100km x 100km squares, represented by 1 letter (Ireland) or 2 (UK mainland), and then measures / reports and Easting / Northing within that square. Example: ST645332 (UK, box ST, 64.5 km east, 33.2 km ...	2009-01-28
949	Sludge off the mountain, and Python and PHP Is Python 2.3 compatible with version 2.2? How about PHP 5.1 with PHP 4.4? In an ideal world, the answer to every such compatibility question would be "yes, it is" but it's not always quite that simple. Python's upwards compatibility is excellent - as a language, it was designed for the purpose for ...	2009-01-01
913	Python - A list of methods In Python everything - even named blocks of code - are objects. Which means that you can have a list or a dictionary of functions, and you can pass named blocks of code in and out of other functions and methods games = [] colls = [350, 120.5, 1, 400, 289, 400] c2 = [4,3,4,5,4,7] games.append(lambda ...	2009-01-01
1879	Dynamic code - Python When I learned to program, named blocks of code (subroutines and functions) were built into each program and weren't things you could change at run time. But these days, in some languages like Python it's very different and you can write code that includes dynamic functions and methods - after all, ...	2008-11-12
1871	Optional and named parameters in Python When you're calling a named block of code (either a function or a method in Python terms), you'll pass in a number of parameters. Some of those will be mandatory - needed every time. Some will be optional, but frequently used, and others will be wanted on very rare occasions indeed and selected from ...	2008-11-05
1870	What to do with a huge crop of apples Last year, you had a good crop of apples on your tree .... what did you do with them? Make apple pies for all the neighbours! How? • You collect all the apples and bring them into the kitchen. • You prepare the apples ready for the pies. • You make the pastry and apple pies. • You ...	2008-11-04
1869	Anonymous functions (lambdas) and map in Python Why do you name variables? So that you can use them again later. But if you don't want to use them more than once, why bother with a name at all? Most programming languages create temporary or anonymous variables within a single line, and if you've programmed almost anything, you'll have used them without ...	2008-11-04
1790	Sharing variables with functions, but keeping them local too - Python """ One of the big issues with any programming language is how in shares (scopes) variables between blocks of code. On one hand there's a desire to have variables easily accessible without a lot of passing around. On the other hand there's the need to keep information in vary different parts of you code ...	2008-09-11
1784	Global - Tcl, PHP, Python PHP, Python, Tcl and a number of other languages have a global keyword. And it's a misnomer in most (if not all) cases. To the un-initiated, "Global" means "worldwide" or "shared all around". So you would think that if you declare something as global, you're going to be sharing it with the same thing ...	2008-09-04
418	Difference between import and from in Python Python's "import" loads a Python module into its own namespace, so that you have to add the module name followed by a dot in front of references to any names from the imported module that you refer to: import feathers duster = feathers.ostrich("South Africa") "from" loads a Python module into the current ...	2008-05-17
105	Distance Learning From time to time, I'm asked about providing "distance learning" for Perl, PHP, Ruby, Python ... and it's an excellent question. It's something we're considered, reviewed, and no doubt will review again in the future ... but here's my views and our decision on the subject at present: We don't offer ...	2008-05-11
96	Variable Scope One of the vital topics on all our programming courses is that of variable scope. Variable Scope may be defined as the area of a program in which a variable is visible, and how long that variable is accessible for. Why do I describe variable scope as a vital subject when you can write simple programs ...	2008-05-11
1464	Python Script - easy examples of lots of basics Here's a Python script which is pretty imperfect, but shows a whole lot of the basic facilities of the language in use - a sort of "you can do it this way" crib sheet for newcomers. Written during last week's course, with delegates making suggestions as I went along - so if you think the code looks ...	2007-12-12
1202	Returning multiple values from a function (Perl, PHP, Python) Function in PHP and Python and subs in Perl can only return one "thing" - one item, one object. But all three languages allow that returned item to be a collection - in other words, a composite. And all three languages provide a very easy way of breaking the returned structure down into a series of individual ...	2007-05-24
1163	A better alternative to cutting and pasting code If you're new to coding, you'll be so concerned to be writing code that works that you may not take a look at coding technique. Your nose will be so close to the grindstone as you work that you won't take the time to look and ask "Do I need to keep grinding anyway?" If you find yourself writing a piece ...	2007-04-26
1134	Function / method parameters with * and ** in Python In Python, you can define a function with optional parameters; if you specify a single * in front of a parameter, then that will be a tuple of all remaining unnamed values. And if you specify two *s in front of a parameter, that will be a dictionary of all remaining named parameters. Let's see an ...	2007-04-03
900	Python - function v method What's the difference between a function and a method? A function is a named piece of code that performs an operation, and a method is a function with an extra parameter which is the object that it's to run on. Example: class hotel:  def __init__(self,name,nightly):   self.name = ...	2006-10-20
821	Dynamic functions and names - Python In Python, everything is held as an object in a variable - and I do mean everything, even named pieces of code. So that means that you can do some amazing things (or things that would be amazing in other languages) such as set up a named piece of code to perform action "x", the replace it dynamically ...	2006-08-03
775	Do not duplicate your code If you've writing or maintaining a program and you find yourself cutting and pasting a chunk of code, STOP and think again. By duplicating a block of code, you're duplicating your maintainance task from that point onwards - any fixes applied to the original much be applied to the copy too. And that's ...	2006-06-30
749	Cottage industry or production line data handling methods If you're running a cottage industry, for efficiency's sake you'll run the first process on each of your raw components first, and store the partially-completed elements in a basket as they're processed. When you've completed that first process, you'll then apply the second process to each element ...	2006-06-07
294	Python generator functions, lambdas, and iterators Python provides a number of useful "extras" on functions and methods beyond what's basically needed in a cruder language. But some of the names / facilities can confuse. Here's some clarification Lambdas A Lambda is a function written in a single line in Python - rather like an anonymous function ...	2006-06-05
745	Python modules. The distribution, The Cheese Shop and the Vaults of Parnassus. What if Python doesn't include a class / method that you would like, but you've got that feeling that "surely someone's done this before"? 1. They probably have 2. They've probably made it an available 'Open Source' 3. It's just a question of you knowing where to look! Where to look ... a) The built ...	2006-06-05

acsh2	Dynamic function definition
apers	static variables in Python?
avg.py	Demonstration of variable scope in Python
better	An extra x - range v xrange and readlines v xreadlines
bundemo	demonstration of a Python Package
cardy	Main program - methods and attributes from a module
chezme	code to use a restaurant (table)
colin.py	A tiny module
dbc	Functions are objects
dfg	Using a generator to process a big file
dream	Good structure of named blocks of code
drought.py	Assorted function call examples
electric.py	a generator function - carries on where it left off at previous call
extrastep.py	importing a name from a module into the current namespace
f1	more options with modules and functions
factor	recursive example - factorial
fat.py	A second program that uses shared functions in mod2.py
ffx	Dynamic function definition
firstclass	List of fucntions and callback demo
flook.py	Program to use a module and the attributes of its functions
fm	use of functions from a module
fun.py	definition and use of a function
gen	A generator - two code branches both live
gen2	Using a generator function to provide an iteration
gen_control	Not using a generator - each runs to completion
genex	Generator v regular function
gentwo	generator - multiple yields and no loop!
geom.py	Full module, documentation, test harness, static variables
gubbins.py	A bunch of functions in a module
jen.iter	Generator with multiple yields
jenny	Generator v list comparison
local.py	File of functions to be loaded by other examples
locvar.py	Local and global variables
m1	map to transform and filter to select from a list
mapfunc.py	Use of the map function to transform a list
mod2.py	A module with doc strings and attributes defined
mod_demo.py	Program that uses the module in local.py
mutton	Anonymous variables and subs and lambdas
myne.py	Module with documentation string and test harness
mystuff.py	functions, statics, test code, doc strings ...
noa	Mandatory, optional, ordered and named parameters
params.py	Optional parameters, and variable number of parameters
passenger	Calling program - sample answer with separate module for functions
pf	Defining and calling a function - postal delivery order
pgob	Using objects to pass in (and out) of generators
places.xyz	Sample data for jenny demo
poc.py	Scope of variables - some samples
qv2	Example that uses mystuff.py
qv3	alternative example using mystuff.py
recur.py	Recursion - when a function calls itself
repeater	retaining a variable from one call to the next
requests.xyz	Sample data for dfg
restaurant.py	code that DEFINES a restuarant table
sheep.py	A Lambda function - one line function definition
silksheets.py	Functions that we'll share between applications
slumbermore	Good structure of named blocks of code
snoresleep	A further Good structure of named blocks of code
ststar	* and ** in function calls
ststst	function calling - options demonstrated
sweetdream	Another example of a module reuse
sysdemo.py	use of a standard module (sys)
tax.py	functions to work out tax and net from gross
taxcalcs.py	Collecting function parameters
taxi	Exercise answer - net and tax from gross amount
thing.py	demonstration of a Python Package - the module
vargs	vargs in Python
yf	Using a generator
yum	Brining in elements from a namespace

Studious group during a practical